Abstract
The amphetamines are indirect-acting sympathomimetic amines and powerful central nervous system stimulants which are used in the therapy of attention deficit disorder, hyperactivity and narcolepsy. Amphetamines also have a potential for abuse and illicit forms of amphetamines constitute some of the most dangerous but widely used drugs of abuse. High doses of amphetamines can be associated with liver injury and distinctive forms of clinically apparent liver injury.
[2]
Street Names
Speed
Uppers
[1]
Brand Names
Dexedrine
Adderall
Vyvanse
Dexampex
Ferndex
Oxydess II
[2]
History
Amphetamines were first synthesized in 1887 by the drug company Smith, Kline and French. They were not marketed until 1932, however, as Benzedrine inhalers for relief from nasal congestion due to hay fever, colds, or asthma. In 1935, after noting its stimulant effects, the drug company encouraged prescription of the drug for the chronic sleep disorder narcolepsy. Clinical enthusiasm for the drug led to its misapplication for the treatment of various conditions, including addiction to opiates. The harmful effects of the drug were first noted by the British press, and in 1939 amphetamines were placed on a list of toxic substances for the United Kingdom.
The demand for amphetamines was high in the 1950s and early 1960s. They were used by people who had to stay awake for long periods of time. Truck drivers who had to make long hauls used them to drive through the night. Those who had long tours of duty in the armed forces relied on them to stay awake. High school and college students cramming for tests took them to study through the nights before their examinations. Athletes looked to amphetamines for more energy, while English and American popular musicians structured their lives and music around them. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) estimated that there were well over 200 million amphetamine pills in circulation by 1962 in the United States alone.
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Pharmacology
The chemical formula foramphetamines is: C9H13N
Amphetamine (beta-phenylisopropylamine) is a potent sympathomimetic amine of a simple structure with a multiplicity of biological effects that include hyperthermic, anorectic, cardiovascular and central nervous system stimulant actions. Since the 1930s a large number of drugs have been developed from systematic, chemical modifications of the basic amphetamine molecule to emphasize some of the properties of amphetamines and to eliminate or diminish others. These chemical manipulations have resulted in the synthesis of a variety of more selectively acting sympathomimetics. These altered molecules include CNS stimulants, potent psychomimetics (hallucinogens), anorectic agents, and vasoconstrictors that all have the basic beta-phenylisopropylamine skeleton. Reports of the consequences of abuse and addiction followed rather closely the development of these agents: manufacture, distribution and use continue to the present day. Both legitimate and illicit production account for a significant level of use of CNS stimulants. CNS stimulants are perhaps the most reinforcing drugs known to man. For this reason alone they will persist as drugs of choice among a variety of personalities
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Uses
Amphetamines were initially used as a nasal inhaler to treat colds and hay fever. But they were found later to stimulate the central nervous system, their primary medical use today.
As stimulant, amphetamines sharpen alertness, curb hunger, banish sleep, dispel depression. They generate feelings of renewed physical and mental power, produce an elevation of mood and a sense of well being.
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Scheduling
Today, amphetamines are schedule II drug in the USA under the Controlled Substances Act in 1971.
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Psychological and physical addiction liability
Psychological effects can include euphoria, anxiety, increased libido, alertness, concentration, energy, self-esteem, self-confidence, sociability, irritability, aggression, psychosomatic disorders, psychomotor agitation, grandiosity, repetitive and obsessive behaviors, paranoia, and with chronic and/or high doses, amphetamine psychosis can occur.
Withdrawal Effects
Withdrawal symptoms of amphetamine consist primarily of mental fatigue, mental depression and increased appetite. Symptoms may last for days with occasional use and weeks or months with chronic use, with severity dependent on the length of time and the amount of amphetamine used. Withdrawal symptoms may also include anxiety, agitation, excessive sleep, vivid or lucid dreams, deep REM sleep and suicidal ideation.
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Long term effects
There are two main long-term effects of using amphetamines
Physical effect:
Risk of damage to brain cells
Amphetamine psychosis, which includes hallucinations, paranoia and other symptoms similar to schizophrenia. This can lead to behaviour dangerous to the person and to others.
Malnutrition, because the drug suppresses appetite
Reduced immunity, due to malnutrition and lack of sleep
Mood swings, depression and panic attacks
The need to use other drugs, such as sleeping tablets, to balance the effects of amphetamines
Aggression and increased susceptibility to violent rages.
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Physical effects
Physical effects of amphetamine can include hyperactivity, dilated pupils, vasoconstriction, blood shot eyes, flushing, restlessness, dry mouth, bruxism, headache, tachycardia, bradycardia, tachypnea, hypertension, hypotension, fever, diaphoresis, diarrhea, constipation, blurred vision, aphasia, dizziness, twitching, insomnia, numbness, palpitations, arrhythmias, tremors, dry and/or itchy skin, acne, pallor, convulsions, and with chronic and/or high doses, seizure, stroke, coma, heart attack and death can occur
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Psychological treatment options
The psychological treatment options suggested on the levels of individual addication could include:
Group social support
Family involvement
Individual counseling
Medical Treatment options
Most drugs that are given to treat amphetamine addiction have very limited benefits. Fluoxetine may decrease craving in short-term treatment. Imipramine may increase duration of adherence to treatment in medium-term treatment. Apart from these, no other benefits can be found. This limited evidence suggests that no treatment has been demonstrated to be effective for the treatment of amphetamine dependence.
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Pychological Treament
Providing support and empathy, group therapy sessions can open doors for those still struggling with addiction. Group sessions may also include individuals in long-term recovery who provide great advice and encouragement for addicts having difficulty. Most counsellors suggest loving support and encouragement, which can be extremely helpful during sessions.
Related drugs
Drugs similar to Amphetamines are:
dextroamphetamine,
methylphenidate,
lisdexamfetamine
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Related Synthetics
Related Synthetics are:
MDMA,
amphetamine
methamphetamine,
Alpha-PVP,
4-Flouroamphetamine,
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-chloroamphetamine,
MDAI,
MXE
[8]
References
[1] http://teens.drugabuse.gov/facts/facts_xtc1.php
[2] http://livertox.nih.gov/Amphetamines.htm
[3] http://science.jrank.org/pages/302/Amphetamines-History.html
[4] http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/monographs/94.pdf
[5] http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2546376
[6] http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Amphetamines
[7] http://www.cesar.umd.edu/cesar/drugs/amphetamines.asp
[8] httap://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/new-markets-for-synthetic-drugs.html
[9] http://summaries.cochrane.org/CD003022/drugs-to-help-end-amphetamine-dependence-are-not-very-helpful-and-more-research-is-needed